微生物学通报  2015, Vol. 42 Issue (1): 192-199

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文章信息

刘云彦, 栗冬梅, 刘起勇, 陈忠科
LIU Yun-Yan, LI Dong-Mei, LIU Qi-Yong, CHEN Zhong-Ke
巴尔通体感染性心内膜炎的研究进展
Research progress on Bartonella endocarditis: a review of the literatures
微生物学通报, 2015, 42(1): 192-199
Microbiology China, 2015, 42(1): 192-199
10.13344/j.microbiol.china.140375

文章历史

收稿日期: 2014-05-04
接受日期: 2014-06-25
优先数字出版日期(www.cnki.net): 2014-08-14
巴尔通体感染性心内膜炎的研究进展
刘云彦1, 2, 3, 栗冬梅1, 3 , 刘起勇1, 3, 陈忠科2     
1. 中国疾病预防控制中心传染病预防控制所 传染病预防控制国家重点实验室 北京 102206
2. 山东大学 生命科学学院 山东 济南 250100
3. 感染性疾病诊治协同创新中心 江苏 杭州 310003
摘要: 感染性心内膜炎一直是威胁人类健康的重要疾病之一。近年来人类正面临着此病发病率持续上升的局面,其诊断、治疗和预防依然是目前需要解决的重要临床和公共卫生问题。本文介绍了感染性心内膜炎疾病的最新研究进展,分析了国内外报道的538份巴尔通体感染性心内膜炎的病例,重点阐述了巴尔通体和相关心内膜炎的流行病学、实验室诊断、治疗以及发病的危险因素和预防控制措施。预测这些研究将对人类理解和控制巴尔通体感染性心内膜炎具有重要的指导意义。
关键词: 感染性心内膜炎    巴尔通体    实时荧光定量PCR    诊断    猫抓病    
Research progress on Bartonella endocarditis: a review of the literatures
LIU Yun-Yan1,2,3, LI Dong-Mei1,3 , LIU Qi-Yong1,3, CHEN Zhong-Ke 2     
1. State Key Laboratory for Infectious Diseases Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China
2. School of Life Science,Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250100, China)
3. Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, Jiangsu 310003, China
Abstract: Infective endocarditis (IE) remains one of the major diseases, which poses a serious threat to human health. In recent years, human being is facing an increased incidence rate of IE and therefore accurate diagnosis and effective treatment as well as preventive measurements become urgent clinical and public health issues. This reviewsummaries the recent progress of IE in laboratory diagnosis, treatment, the risk factors and preventive measures concerning Bartonella species and BE, including 538Bartonella endocarditis (BE) cases and their epidemiology. It is anticipated that associated studies have substantial significance on the understanding and control of BE of human being.
Key words: Infective endocarditis    Bartonella    Real-time quantity PCR    Diagnosis    Cat scratch disease    

感染性心内膜炎(Infective endocarditis,IE)是一类严重威胁生命、临床表现极其复杂且诊断十分困难的疾病[1]。该病的病因复杂,依据初起临床表现、潜在心脏疾病、涉及病原微生物和并发症存在与否等表现出各种各样的形式,其治疗需内科医生、心脏病专家、外科医生、微生物学家、传染病专家、神经学家、神经外科学家、放射科学家和病理学家等的会诊与治疗[2]。自从磺胺类药和青霉素出现,IE治疗得到了很大改观,不再是普遍致命性的疾病[3]。在过去30年里,预防和治疗水平虽然有了很大提高,但发病率和死亡率依然比较高[1],每年发病率为3-10例/100 000人,住院死亡率为9.6%-26.0%[4]。Netzer等[5]报道IE死亡率在20世纪50年代约为40.0%-60.0%,20世纪70年代到80年代降到约为30.0%,1980-1995年约为16.0%-27.0%。Slipczuk等[6]研究近五十年IE流行病显示在20世纪70年代住院死亡率为24.4%-36.8%,并且之后一直保持在这个水平。

引起IE病原体有链球菌(Streptococcus spp.)、葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus spp.)、柯克斯体(Coxiella spp.)、巴尔通体(Bartonellaspp.)、衣原体(Chlamydia spp.)、棒状杆菌(Corynebacterium spp.)、布鲁氏菌(Brucella spp.)、肠杆菌科(Enterobacteriaceae spp.)、真菌(Fungi)等[7]。其诊断方法除依据临床表现外,主要依据微生物学检查,比如血液及瓣膜组织培养分离病原体、血清学、组织病理学和核酸分子诊断[7]。报道血培养阴性心内膜炎(Blood culture negative endocarditis,BCNE)患者在IE患者中约占2.5%-31.0%[8,9,10],主要是由于一类营养条件要求苛刻、生长缓慢、难以培养的病原体,即巴尔通体与柯克斯体引起[8],其中巴尔通体感染性心内膜炎(Bartonellaendocarditis,BE)发病率在IE患者中约占4.5%[3,6]。Slipczuk等[6]报道全世界BCNE患者在20世纪60年代约占18%,20世纪70年代约占14%,20世纪80年代约占23%,20世纪90年代约占20%,21世纪前十年约占14%,近十年处于下降趋势。英国报道伦敦圣托马斯医院1975-2000年516份心内膜炎病例,研究显示BCNE患者约占12.2%,BE发病率在BCNE患者中约占11%[9]。在法国BE发病率在IE患者中约占30%[10,11],在巴西BE患者在BCNE患者中约占3.9%[12]

巴尔通体引起的相关疾病属于被忽视的疾病(Neglected disease),但引起的心内膜炎严重影响到人类健康,造成卫生经济负担,因此重新认识这种病原体以及相关疾病势在必行。在此,本文分析了52篇文献报道的538例BE的临床症状、诊断和治疗等,阐述了巴尔通体和相关心内膜炎的流行概况、实验室诊断、治疗和预防措施等。

1 BE报告病例分析

本文收集了1993-2013年英国、法国、美国、印度、瑞典和希腊等全世界范围内报道的52篇文献[7,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62],共计538例BE,其中47篇文献详细描述110例患者情况,5篇文献只报道BE病例数共428例[7,55,56,61,62]。统计时剔除重叠病例报道。在有性别记录的108名患者中,男性占78.7% (85例),女性占21.3% (23例),男女发病率比例约4:1。患者年龄在4-81岁之间,40岁以下患者占34.6% (37例),40岁以上的占65.4% (70例),老年患者居多。报道有瓣膜病史患者占34.5%(38例)。从动物接触史看,主要报道接触猫、狗、兔和猴等,并有体虱和蚤类滋生情况。从预后情况看,报道71例患者中死亡占19.7% (14例),治愈占80.3% (57例)。从诊断方法看,主要有辅助的超声心动图检查、血清学、血培养、瓣膜培养和核酸分子检查。在88例患者中,赘生物患者占75%(66例)。在受累的瓣膜损伤中(91例),主动脉瓣膜占79.1% (72例),二尖瓣膜占30.8% (28例),三尖瓣膜5.5% (5例)和肺动脉瓣膜4.4% (4例)。血清学检测阳性患者占81.8%(90例)。血培养阳性患者占8.1% (9例)。瓣膜培养阳性患者占11.8%(13例)。血样和瓣膜PCR检测阳性患者占63.6% (70例)。

综合各种方法检测感染人心内膜炎的巴尔通体主要有8种,在110个病例患者中,由五日热巴尔通体(B. quintana,Bq)感染的患者占50.0% (55例),汉赛巴尔通体(B. henselae,Bh)占23.6% (26例),另外还有文森巴尔通体博格霍夫亚种(B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii,Bvb)(2例)、文森巴尔通体阿鲁潘亚种(B. vinsonii subsp.arupensis,Bva)(5例)、阿尔萨斯巴尔通体(B. alsatica,Ba)(2例)、伊丽莎白巴尔通体(B. elizabethae,Be)(1例)、克勒巴尔通体(B. koehlerae,Bk)(1例)和Candidatus B. mayotimonensis(1例),未确定种的患者有17例。

2 巴尔通体流行概况

巴尔通体是一群革兰染色阴性、氧化酶阴性、营养条件要求苛刻、兼性细胞内寄生的需氧杆菌,主要寄生在人、猫、狗和啮齿动物等血管内皮细胞和红细胞内,通过跳蚤、体虱和白蛉等传播,可引起人类卡瑞恩病、猫抓病、战壕热、杆菌性血管瘤、心内膜炎等疾病。尽管在自然界存在已久、分布广泛,且有该病暴发流行,但人们对巴尔通体认知程度仍然有限。随着新发传染病出现,目前已定义了27个种,种类越来越多,引发疾病谱也相当复杂,故越来越受到国内外生物医学界的重视,我国也把巴尔通体病定为14种新发传染病之一。

近年来,感染人类疾病的巴尔通体种类越来越多,共报道13种,其中8种可感染人引起心内膜炎,此外至少有6种巴尔通体(B. quintana,B. henselae,B. bovis,B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii,B. clarridgeiae,B. washoensis)可感染动物引起心内膜炎[63,64,65,66,67,68,69]。Bq是主要的病原体,且是首次被确认为BE的物种,最先引起人们注意的是在第一次大战期间暴发且死亡率较高的战壕热[70],Bh和Bvb次之,并可导致严重的瓣膜损伤。报道Bq感染心内膜炎的危险因素主要有免疫缺陷病、酗酒、无家可归和体虱感染,经常发生在以前没有瓣膜疾病的人群,而Bh感染心内膜炎主要与猫和猫蚤接触,经常发生在已患有瓣膜疾病人群中[59]。此外,巴尔通体具有不完全的宿主特异性,Bh和Bk的主要宿主是猫[71,72,73];Bq的主要宿主是人类和其他灵长类动物[74,75,76];Bvb宿主为郊狼、狐狸和狗,其中郊狼和狐狸是野生宿主,狗是与人类更为亲密的宿主动物[64];Be和Bva的宿主是啮齿动物[59];Ba报道的唯一宿主是兔[52];Candidatus B. mayotimonensis从心内膜炎病人中分离[53],未确定宿主。

3 巴尔通体实验室诊断

心内膜炎诊断标准首先应符合杜克(Duke)诊断标准[77]。对于BE,血清学诊断只能作为辅助,而血液及瓣膜组织培养分离病原体以及核酸检测才可作为确诊手段。

3.1 分离培养

适合分离的标本有血液、淋巴组织、皮肤、心脏瓣膜及其他器官的活检标本。最常用的是人工培养基分离培养,固体培养需添加动物全血,在37℃含5% CO2的血培养基(如含5%羊血的胰酶大豆琼脂、哥伦比亚琼脂、巧克力琼脂等)上生长,也可在含小牛血清的肉汤及组织中培养。一般培养12-14 d可看到典型的菌落生长,有时需45 d,原代培养通常需5-30 d,传代培养需35 d。液体培养无需添加动物全血,更接近于宿主体内的环境,明显加快培养速度,为更难培养的菌提供了很好的解决办法。国外Riess等[78]发现在果蝇细胞培养基中添加胎牛血清、谷氨酰胺和蔗糖后可使巴尔通体生长良好,具有操作方便稳定的优点。国内已建立以昆虫细胞培养基(Schneider's insect medium,SIM)为基础的液体培养方法,成分更简单、易于操作、生长良好[79]。细胞培养是最有效的分离培养,国外常用的细胞是人血管内皮细胞ECV304,对血液和淋巴标本来说也是比较好的方法[80]。这些方法对巴尔通体培养和研究具有重要的应用价值,但在判断结果时只靠肉眼观察,没有足够可靠的依据,降低了实验准确性,此外还有部分待测样本在培养前使用过抗生素,容易导致阴性结果。

3.2 血清学检测

目前一般采用间接免疫荧光抗体测定法(IFA)、酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)、免疫印迹分析(Western blotting)[81],其中IFA是最常用诊断BE的方法。报道在总体人群中采用IFA方法检测血清抗体,当血清抗体滴度为l:1 600时,其阳性符合率为0.884[82]。最新研究显示当血清抗体滴度为1:1 600时,其阳性符合率为0.672,敏感率为0.771;当抗体滴度为1:800时,其阳性符合率为0.398,而敏感率达到0.895,然而这一较低性符合率是由于在确定正常人群实验参考值时,包含了一系列患有慢性Bq菌血症的流浪汉人群,提高了正常人群的抗体滴度[62]。国内杨小冉等采用ELISA和IFA方法检测北京市昌平地区健康人群体检血清标本中Bh抗体阳性率,分别为34.5%和35.6%[83]。血清学检测是BE最实用的诊断方法,但灵敏度差,不能很好区分Bq和Bh,容易与衣原体等其他微生物出现交叉反应。

3.3 核酸诊断

(1) 普通PCR。检测巴尔通体主要基于16S rRNA、16S-23S rRNA ITS、gltAgroELftsZribC基因PCR扩增。目前,栗冬梅等已采用普通PCR扩增上述基因和测序的方法在北京、山东和云南等地的猫、狗、鼠、蚤和蜱中检测出Bq、Bh、Bvb和Bc等巴尔通体[84,85,86,87]。虽然普通PCR已是快速检测病原体常用的一种技术,但还存在很大缺陷,如引物结合缺乏特异性、实验室污染和临床上PCR抑制物存在造成假阴性等。我们在实际工作中发现,对于直接检测临床样品,不敏感和假阳性是存在较多的问题,特别是应用巢式PCR时,敏感性虽然增加,但是污染造成的假阳性问题仍然比较突出,因此限制了在临床上的推广应用。

(2) 实时荧光定量PCR(Real-time quantity PCR,qPCR)。目前用于微生物病原体检测的qPCR多为探针法。优点是对目标序列有很高的特异性,依据序列特异性探针区别物种,特异性准确率更高,解决了荧光染料非特异的缺点,且反应结束后不需要进行寡核苷酸熔解曲线分析,缩短了实验时间。

单重实时荧光探针定量PCR:国外报道通过扩增ssrA基因建立实时荧光探针PCR方法检测巴尔通体属[88]。国内本实验室已建立了单重实时荧光定量PCR方法检测一些常见的巴尔通体,如Bvb[89]、Bh、Bq、Be和Bb (尚未发表),其他实验室也有报道采用TaqMan-MGB探针技术建立了检测Bh和Bq单重实时荧光定量PCR方法[90]。这些方法虽然克服常规PCR技术的不足,并可对未经PCR扩增的原始模板进行定量,特异性、敏感性和重现性相对更好,但是一个PCR体系只能检测一种或一类病原体,不能同时检测多种病原体,导致待测样品和试剂使用量相对比较多,与目前发展的多重实时荧光探针PCR相比还是有些不足。

多重实时荧光探针定量PCR,在单一管中有效的区分多种病原体,具有高效性、经济简便性等优点,节约样本的同时又达到了经济实用、加速实验进程等。缺点是要合成昂贵的探针,且在设计引物探针时要避免引物和引物、探针和探针及引物和探针之间二聚体,给设计合适组合的引物探针带来一定的困难。该方法在其他致病菌如曲霉菌等检测应用广泛,而在巴尔通体检测上还没有相关报道。

(3) 高分辨率熔解曲线分析技术(High-resolution melting analysis,HRM)。是在实时荧光定量PCR上发展的一种新技术,克服了无需使用特异性探针即可分析核酸熔解曲线的变化,克服了不饱和染料如SYBR Green的一些缺点,如荧光强度较低、稳定性差,标记DNA双链时不能保证全部PCR产物都嵌合上染料,嵌合到产物中的染料如果在扩增过程中不能及时脱落,抑制PCR反应等。该技术主要采用饱和染料如LC Green等有更强DNA结合能力和很低抑制作用,解链过程中不会发生重排,使熔解过程中发出的荧光信号具有更高的分辨率。结合多重PCR方法建立HRM方法根据其特定Tm值和熔解曲线有效区分Tm差异的多种物种。与多重实时荧光探针PCR相比,操作相对简单,不需制作标准曲线,仅用Tm值即可判断结果;不需合成探针,成本低。但还有些不足,可以检测任何双链DNA序列的扩增,没有引物特异性。国外已报道采用SYBR染料建立检测巴尔通体荧光定量PCR方法,用作巴通体心内膜炎的诊断[61],最新报道采用饱和染料cyto9扩增rpoBgltA、ITS测序检测巴尔通体[91,92,93]

目前,国内外尚未见应用多重实时荧光探针PCR和HRM方法同时检测鉴定多种巴尔通体。感染人心内膜炎的巴尔通体最常见的病原体为Bq、Bh和Bvb,因此有必要建立灵敏度高、快速同时检测这3种病原体的方法,为BE检测工作提供更有效的手段。鉴于上述两种方法各自优缺点,本研究试验建立这两种方法检测巴尔通体,通过实验比较其特异性灵敏性。

4 治疗

迄今BE最佳治疗方法还没有建立。疑似IE,治疗主要选用头孢曲松钠、强力霉素、万古霉素、庆大霉素、红霉素和利福平等;疑似BE,推荐头孢曲松[100 mg/(kg·d)]和强力霉素[2-4 mg/(kg·d)] 6周,再加2周庆大霉素[3 mg/(kg·d)];确认BE,推荐6周强力霉素,随后再服用2周庆大霉素[57]。手术治疗对BE并不是必须的,主要通过患者临床状况来确定,对于瓣膜疣状赘生物、治疗2周后依然有栓塞、心室衰竭、发生难治性急性心力衰竭、瓣膜穿孔和腱索离断等需考虑手术治疗[2,57,58,94,95]。尽管如此,仍然有1/3急性病例由于治疗时机等因素而预后不良,特别是治疗前病程长、抗生素不敏感、剂量或疗程不足和有严重肺、脑或心内膜损害的病例大多在停药后6周容易复发,复发率约5%-10%,复发病例再治疗时,应采取联合用药,加大剂量和延长疗程,甚至推荐终身治疗[95]

5 防控措施

目前还没有有效的免疫预防方法,主要采取综合性防控办法。首先应经常全面地杀虫[15,27]灭鼠,消除鼠类和吸血节肢动物的孳生。对豢养宠物(特别是猫、狗和兔等)的家庭需特别注意宠物及环境卫生,避免被动物抓咬伤等,一般不建议HIV患者豢养宠物。其次对有风湿性瓣膜病或先天性心脏病患者需注意口腔卫生,及时处理各种感染病灶,施行手术或器械检查前应给予抗生素[2,74]。此外巴尔通体感染的患者大部分是一些社会弱势人群,如吸毒者、慢性酗酒者、流浪人群、HIV阳性患者、无家可归和卫生条件差的人群,需提高人群免疫力以及改善他们的生活状况,养成良好的生活习惯等。

6 结语

巴尔通体生长缓慢、营养条件要求苛刻而难于分离培养是造成诊断困难的原因之一,其次所引起IE没有明显临床特征,许多病例没有被识别出来,因此实际BE感染率远比我们知道的多。分子生物学诊断技术的迅速发展将有助于提高BE的诊断,增加BE病例报道的数目。随着研究不断深入,引发BE的新种将不断出现,人们发现不同种巴尔通体所致疾病的严重性也各不相同,更增加了此种疾病的复杂性。目前,造成该病原体肆虐的原因以及致病机理尚不十分清楚,其感染途径也较为复杂,给诊断、治疗和预防措施的制定带来了困难。BE潜隐发病,临床上以心脏瓣膜损害为主,严重者甚至威胁生命,及早发现和治疗可以避免不良的预后,因此需引起广大临床及预防医学工作者高度的重视。鉴于此,建立快速灵敏的巴尔通体检测方法是当前的迫切需要,为巴尔通体引起一系列疾病的早期诊断和治疗提供先决条件。

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